NATIONAL CENTER FOR EDUCATION STATISTICS

Findings from The Condition of Education 1997: Public and Private Schools: How Do They Differ?

July 1997

(NCES 97-983)

About 46 million students are currently enrolled in the Nation’s public schools in kindergarten through grade 12, and another 6 million are enrolled in private schools.\1\  Because private schools are often perceived to be more successful in teaching students, with at least some empirical basis,\2\ many reform proposals for public schools have looked to the private sector for models to emulate. School choice, small schools, and decentralized decision making, for example, are among the features commonly associated with private education that many have suggested might benefit public schools.

Exactly how do public and private schools differ? To address this question, at least in the aggregate, national data are assembled here to compare public and private schools along a number of important dimensions. The discussion begins with an examination of two fundamental differences between public and private schools: their sources of support and the role of choice in determining where students go to school. Next is a description of the characteristics of the key participants in the education process— students and teachers—and how they differ in the public and private sectors. Following that is a comparison of selected aspects of the organization and management of public and private schools, including school and class size and who makes policy decisions for the school and classroom. Next, the varying circumstances under which teaching and learning take place in public and private schools (the school climate) are examined. The final sections describe differences in academic programs and support services.

The data show many systematic differences between public and private schools, and provide a context in which to consider the debates about the relative merits of various aspects of public and private schooling. However, as public and private schools are compared, it is important to keep in mind the enormous variation that exists within each sector and the overlap between the two. As Baker, Han, and Keil point out in their examination of organizational differences between public and private secondary schools, "School sector is not a simple organizational fault line running through the Nation’s schools."\3\  More detail on the nature of the diversity that exists within each sector can be found in other NCES publications.\4\

The defining distinction between public and private schools is their different sources of support. Public schools depend primarily on local, state, and federal government funds, while private schools are usually supported by tuition payments and sometimes by funds from other nonpublic sources such as religious organizations, endowments, grants, and charitable donations. In some states, private schools receive public funds for certain services (e.g., transportation).

Tuition at private schools varies considerably by grade level and whether or not the school has a religious affiliation. In 1993–94, the average tuition paid by private school students was about $3,100, but ranged from a low of about $1,600 in

Average private school tuition:* 1993–94

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                                               Other     

School level     Total       Catholic      religious     Nonsectarian

---------------------------------------------------------------------

Total         $3,116         $2,178        $2,915            $6,631



Elementary       2,138          1,628         2,606             4,693

Secondary        4,578          3,643         5,261             9,525

Combined         4,266          4,153         2,831             7,056

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*Tuition weighted by the number of students enrolled in schools.

SOURCE: NCES, Digest of Education Statistics 1996, table 60.  

Catholic elementary schools to a high of about $9,500 in nonsectarian secondary schools. Total public school expenditures were about $6,500 per pupil (computed using average daily attendance) in 1993–94,\5\ but it is impossible to compare public and private school expenditures because tuition often covers only part of the total spent.

The idea of school choice has traditionally been associated with private schools, but many advocate offering at least some choice within the public sector. Having public schools compete for students, the thinking goes, will provide them with a strong incentive to improve and be more responsive to the needs and concerns of students and their parents.

Private schools are attended by choice, but choice is not limited to the private sector.

Private schools provide an alternative for parents who are dissatisfied with public schools or have other reasons for wanting their children to attend a private school. Within the private sector, parents can choose among a range of religiously affiliated and nonsectarian schools (as long as they can afford the tuition charged or receive financial aid). Some private schools are very selective in their admissions, while others are not. In 1993, 9 percent of all students in grades 3–12 attended a private school.

Parents of students in public schools can sometimes choose or exert influence over which schools their children attend. In 1993, 11 percent of students in grades 3–12 attended a public school chosen by their parents. In addition, parents can indirectly choose among public schools for their children to the extent that they can choose where to live. While 80 percent of public school students in grades 3–12 attended an assigned public school in

1993, the parents of 39 percent of the students in these grades indicated that their child attended an assigned school but that their choice of residence was influenced by where their children would go to school. Thus, less than half (41 percent) of the students in grades 3–12 attended assigned public schools over which their parents had exercised no direct or indirect choice.

Families with annual incomes over $50,000 have the most choice.

Higher family income facilitates both public and private school choice. Because most private schools charge tuition, only parents with the personal financial resources or financial aid to afford the tuition truly have the option of selecting a private school. Thus, the rate of private school attendance in 1993 increased with family income. Similarly, because the housing options that realistically can be considered are related to a family’s income, the percentage of parents who reported that their choice of residence was influenced by where their children would go to school also generally increased with family income.

Children from the lowest income families (less than $15,000) were more likely than those from families with incomes over $30,000 to attend a chosen public school. However, the net result of the various types of choice was that children from families with incomes over $50,000 were much less likely than children from families in lower income categories to attend an assigned public school over which they had not exercised any choice.

Parents who exercise some choice over where their children go to school tend to be more sat-isfied than those who do not.

Parents of students in grades 3–12 who attended private schools were more likely than their public school counterparts to be very satisfied with their children’s school overall and with its specific aspects, such as the teachers, academic standards, and discipline. Within the public sector, parents whose children attended a chosen public school were generally more satisfied than those whose children were in an assigned school. Furthermore, among those whose children attended assigned public schools, parents whose choice of residence was school related were more satisfied than those who did not choose their residence for this reason. Parents whose children attended chosen public schools and those whose choice of residence was school related were about equally likely to be very satisfied with their children’s schools.

Percentage of parents of students in grades 3–12 who were very satisfied with aspects
of their child’s school: 1993

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School                                            Academic   Discipline 

attended                       School  Teachers  standards     policy

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Chosen school                    70.7      67.6       72.1       72.6

 Public                          61.2      61.5       63.0       63.0

 Private                         82.5      75.2       83.4       84.4

Assigned public school           52.3      56.0       55.0       55.1

  Influenced choice              

   of residence                  56.0      58.9       59.3       58.2

 Other                           48.7      53.1       51.0       52.2

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SOURCE: NCES, National Household Education Survey (NHES), 1993 (School

Safety and Discipline File).  

Many of the ways in which public and private schools differ reflect differences in their student populations. Students bring with them to school certain background characteristics such as their racial/ethnic and linguistic backgrounds and, sometimes, personal or family problems that affect their ability to learn. Teachers and administrators take these characteristics into account as they organize and manage their schools and plan and implement curriculum and support services. Thus, to the extent that public and private school students differ, one can expect public and private schools to differ as well. Other student characteristics, such as attitudes toward learning and behavior toward teachers, are also taken into account; however, because these are determined by the school environment as well as students’ backgrounds, they are discussed below in the section on school climate.

Public schools tend to have more racially and ethnically diverse student populations.

Racial and ethnic diversity can enrich the school experiences of students and teachers in many ways. However, a heterogeneous school population creates additional challenges for school teachers and administrators, who must be sensitive to different cultural backgrounds and the interactions among individuals (students and teachers) from different backgrounds. In 1993, 28 percent of public school students in grades 1–12 were black or Hispanic, compared to 17 percent of those in private schools. Private schools are changing, however, as evidenced by the increase in the percentage of black and Hispanic students between 1985 and 1993.

Percentage of students in grades 1–12 who were black or Hispanic:
1985, 1990, and 1993

-------------------------------------------------------

                       Public

       ---------------------------------------

              Central     Other      Nonmetro- 

Year   Total   cities  metropolitan   politan   Private

-------------------------------------------------------

1985    26.8     56.7     18.1         16.8       11.5

1990    27.8     52.1     19.5         16.4       14.3

1993    28.4     53.8     20.2         16.0       16.7

-------------------------------------------------------

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the 

Census, Current Population Reports, Series P-20, 

"School Enrollment: Social and Economic Characteristics 

of Students," October 1985, 1990, and 1993; October 

Current Population Surveys.

Public schools have more students with limited English proficiency.

Students with limited English proficiency create demands on school resources and needs for teacher training that are absent in schools without such students. In 1993–94, 5 percent of all public school students (and 9 percent in central cities) had limited English proficiency, compared to 1 percent of private school students.\6\

Personal problems that interfere with learning are more of a problem in public schools.

When students bring to school personal problems such as those associated with alcohol use, drug abuse, and poverty, both teaching and learning can be seriously compromised. In all types of communities, public school teachers were much more likely than private school teachers to believe that each of these problems was serious in their schools.

Percentage of secondary school teachers who reported that various problems
were serious in their schools: 1993–94

---------------------------------------------------------------

                         Public                 Private

                ----------------------   ----------------------

Student         Central   Urban          Central   Urban 

problems         city    fringe  Rural    city    fringe  Rural

---------------------------------------------------------------

Use of alcohol   19.6     21.7    26.3    12.4      9.4    10.5

Drug abuse       17.1     14.8    12.1     5.1      2.8     3.7

Poverty          24.8      9.6    15.3     3.6      2.5     3.7

---------------------------------------------------------------

SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing in the United States: A

Statistical Profile, 1993–94, 112–113.

Because of the central role teachers play in the educational process, differences between public and private school teachers are an important dimension in which to compare public and private schools. In the aggregate, public and private school teachers come from different racial/ethnic backgrounds, have different qualifications to teach, and are compensated differently.

Private schools have fewer minority teachers and principals.

In public schools, an average of 12 percent of the teachers and 16 percent of the principals were minorities. The percentages were lower in private schools (9 percent minority teachers and 8 percent minority principals). The benefits of having minority teachers as role models have been widely discussed.\7\  Nevertheless, 42 percent of public schools and 66 percent of private schools had no minority teachers in 1993–94.\8\

On certain measures, public school teachers appear to be more qualified than their private school counterparts.

Although many aspects of teacher qualifications are difficult to measure, public school teachers appear to be more qualified than private school teachers in terms of their education and years of teaching experience. In the 1993–94 school year, public school teachers were more likely than private school teachers to have earned a master’s degree (42 versus 30 percent).

In addition, at the secondary level, students in public schools were more likely than those in private schools to be taught English, mathematics, or a foreign language by teachers who majored or minored in the subject as undergraduates. Public school teachers in 1993–94 had more teaching experience, on average, than private school teachers (15 versus 12 years).\9\

Public school teachers were also more likely to participate in professional development activities, which many believe

teachers should do throughout their careers to update and improve their teaching skills. Beginning teachers in public schools (those in their first 3 years of teaching) were much more likely than their private school counterparts to participate in a formal teacher induction program (56 versus 29 percent). \10\  However, induction may be done informally in some schools. Full-time public school teachers were more likely than their private school counterparts to participate in in-service education or professional development on the uses of educational technology for instruction, methods of teaching in a specific subject field, in-depth study in a specific field, student assessment, and cooperative learning in the classroom.

Percentage of full-time public and private school teachers who participated in
certain professional development activities during the 1993–94 school year

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Professional development topic                   Public   Private

-----------------------------------------------------------------

Uses of educational technology for instruction    50.1      34.3

Methods of teaching in specific subject field     64.4      59.8

In-depth study in specific field                  30.1      25.9

Student assessment                                52.0      40.4

Cooperative learning in the classroom             51.5      43.6

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SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1993–94 (Teacher 
Questionnaire).  

On average, public school teachers receive higher salaries and more benefits.

In 1993–94, the average base salary was $34,200 for public school teachers, and $22,000 for private school teachers. Among public districts and private schools with salary schedules, the averages for the highest steps on the schedules were $40,500 and $27,300, respectively.\11\  The difference between principals’ salaries was also large, with public school principals earning an average of $54,900 compared to an average of $32,000 for private school principals. Public school teachers were more likely than private school teachers to be provided with medical insurance (87 versus 60 percent), dental insurance (66 versus 36 percent), group life insurance (61 versus 36 percent), and pension contributions (63 versus 47 percent). One substantial benefit that private school teachers sometimes received (15 percent) was tuition for their children.\12\

Teacher attrition is higher in private schools, but private school teachers are more satisfied with their working conditions.

Teacher attrition tends to be higher in private than public schools: Between the 1993–94 and 1994–95 school years, 10 percent of full-time private school teachers left teaching, compared to 6 percent of their public school counterparts.\13\  Nevertheless, private school teachers were more likely than public school teachers to be highly satisfied with their working conditions (36 versus 11 percent).\14\

Many school reform efforts have focused on the organization and management of schools in the search for ways to increase school effectiveness. Public and private schools, in the aggregate, are organized differently in terms of school and class size and the locus of responsibility for decision making in a number of important policy areas.

The relative merits of various school sizes have been studied extensively as researchers have searched for the ideal school size.\15\  Smaller schools are generally thought to be easier to manage and to promote a greater sense of community among both students and teachers; however, larger schools (within limits) are often more equipped to offer a wider range of academic programs and support services. The advantages of larger schools are more relevant to secondary than elementary schools.

Public schools tend to have larger enrollments.

In the 1993–94 school year, public schools were at least twice the size of private schools, on average. This relationship held across schools in different types of communities at both the elementary and secondary levels.

Average school size: 1993–94

---------------------------------------------

Level and urbanicity         Public   Private

---------------------------------------------

 Total                        516      191

Elementary

  Central city                 547      210

  Urban fringe/large town      524      201

  Rural/small town             378      112

Secondary

  Central city               1,083      398

  Urban fringe/large town      973      308

  Rural/small town             468      183

---------------------------------------------

SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing in the

United States: A Statistical Profile, 

1993–94, 23.  

Small classes allow teachers to give students more individual attention and lighten the teacher’s workload and therefore are generally considered desirable,\16\ although research on the relationship between outcomes and class size has not been conclusive. Despite the advantages they may have, small class sizes are also expensive, and invoke trade-offs between small class size and other uses of school resources.

Average class size is larger in public schools.

At both the elementary and secondary levels, private schools, on average, have smaller classes. In the 1993–94 school year, the average class size was 24 in both elementary and secondary public schools, compared to 22 in private elementary schools and 19 in private secondary schools.\17\

Akey aspect of school management is where important decisions are made concerning curriculum, school policies, and classroom practices. While public schools necessarily must take some direction from State Departments of Education, local school boards, and district staff, more site-based management and local decision making are frequently advocated as a means of improving school effectiveness.\18\

Private school principals (or heads) report having more influence over curriculum than their public school counterparts.

When principals were asked to rate the influence of various groups on establishing curriculum in 1993–94, private school principals were more likely to report that they, rather than any other group, had a great deal of influence. Public school principals, on the other hand, attributed more influence to the State Department of Education, school district staff (which private schools do not have), and even to teachers than to themselves.

In a number of school policy areas, private school teachers and principals are more likely than their public school counterparts to believe that they have a great deal of influence.

In the areas of setting discipline policy and establishing curriculum, in particular, private school teachers in the 1993–94 school year were considerably more likely than public school teachers to think that they had a great deal of influence. Only a relatively small percentage of teachers in either sector were likely to think that they had a great deal of influence over certain other important policy areas, such as making budget decisions, hiring, and evaluating teachers.

Percentage of teachers and principals who thought that they had a great deal of
influence* over certain school policies: 1993–94

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                                  Teachers          Principals

                              ----------------   ----------------

Policy area                   Public   Private   Public   Private

-----------------------------------------------------------------

Setting discipline policy      34.9      59.2     86.9      95.0

Establishing curriculum        34.3      55.7     53.9      84.1

In-service training content    30.6      35.3     72.4      88.4

School budget decisions        10.1       6.2     63.5      84.3

Hiring full-time teachers       8.1       8.4     84.6      90.9

Teacher evaluation              2.7       8.5     94.5      94.6

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*Responded 4 or 5 on a scale of 0–5.



SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing in the United States: A

Statistical Profile, 1993–94, 118–119, 120–121.

In the area of teacher evaluation, almost all principals, public or private, thought that they had a great deal of influence. However, in a number of other policy areas—discipline, curriculum, in-service training, budgeting, and hiring—private school principals were more likely than public school principals to think that they had a great deal of influence. Public school principals share authority for many policy decisions with school boards, district personnel, and State Departments of Education.

Private school teachers reported having more autonomy in the classroom.

In both public and private schools, the vast majority of teachers thought that they had a good deal of control over certain classroom practices: evaluating and grading students, determining the amount of homework, and selecting teaching techniques. Relatively fewer in each sector thought that they had a good deal of control over disciplining students; selecting the content, topics, and skills to be taught; or selecting textbooks and other instructional materials. Except in the area of determining the amount of homework, private school teachers were more likely than public school teachers to think that they had a good deal of control.

Percentage of teachers who thought that they had a good deal of control* over
classroom practices: 1993–94

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Classroom practice                                 Public    Private

---------------------------------------------------------------------

Evaluating and grading students                     86.9       91.6

Determining amount of homework                      86.7       87.4

Selecting teaching techniques                       86.4       91.6

Disciplining students                               69.0       84.3

Selecting content, topics, skills to be taught      60.5       74.6

Selecting textbooks and other materials             55.5       67.9

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*Responded 4 or 5 on a scale of 0–5.



SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1993–94 (Teacher and

Administrator Questionnaires).

School climate can significantly affect the quality of the educational experience for students, teachers, and other staff as well as parents’ satisfaction with their child’s school. Neither teachers nor students can perform at their best if their school is unsafe or disrupted by misbehaving students or if there is a lack of cooperation among teachers or between the school and parents. The National Education Goals for the year 2000 call for schools that "will be free of drugs, violence, and the unauthorized presence of firearms and alcohol and will offer a disciplined environment conducive to learning. "The Goals also call for increased "parental involvement and participation in promoting the social, emotional, and academic growth of children."\19\

Exposure to crime or threats is far more common in public schools.

To learn effectively, students must feel safe at school. The learning environment in schools where students have to worry about being threatened or becoming victims of crime may be seriously compromised. Crime occurs in and around both public and private

Percentage of students in grades 6–12 who reported knowing
about, witnessing, worrying about, or being victimized by robbery,
bullying, or physical attack at school: 1993

------------------------------------------------------

                                 Public

Robbery, bullying,         -----------------

or physical attack         Assigned   Chosen   Private

------------------------------------------------------

Knowledge of occurrence       73        71        45

Witnessed                     58        54        32

Worried about                 26        27        13

Victimized                    12        10         7

------------------------------------------------------

SOURCE: NCES, Student Victimization at School, 
NCES 95-204, 1995.

schools, but public school students have a much greater exposure to crime. The percentages of students in grades 6–12 who knew about, witnessed, or worried about being a victim of bullying, physical attack, or robbery were much greater in both assigned and chosen public schools than in private schools. In addition, students in assigned public schools were more likely than private school students to report being victimized personally.

Public school teachers are far more likely to believe that certain negative student attitudes and behavior are serious problems in their schools.

In the 1993–94 school year, teachers were asked to report their perceptions of the seriousness of various problems in their schools, and their responses suggest that there are different climates in public and private schools. Teachers in public schools were far more likely to report that poor attitudes toward learning

Percentage of teachers who perceived various problems as serious in their
schools: 1993–94

------------------------------------------------------------------

                                   Public             Private

                             -----------------   -----------------

                                  Central city        Central city 

                                    secondary           secondary 

Problems                      All    schools      All    schools

------------------------------------------------------------------

Attitudes toward learning

 Come unprepared

  to learn                   28.8      46.6       4.1       7.3

 Apathy                      23.6      46.4       4.5      10.7

 Absenteeism                 14.4      41.9       2.2       4.4

 Tardiness                   10.5      30.1       2.6       3.7

Interactions with teachers

 Verbal abuse of teachers    11.1      22.6       2.3       2.9

 Disrespect for teachers     18.5      32.5       3.4       5.4

------------------------------------------------------------------

SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing in the United States: A

Statistical Profile, 1993–94, 112–113.

and negative interactions with teachers were serious problems in their schools. The contrast between the perceptions of public and private school teachers was particularly striking in central city secondary schools.

Public school teachers are more likely to believe that a lack of parent involvement is a serious problem in their school.

Communication between parents and school personnel promotes a spirit of home-school cooperation, which is important to student success. Public school teachers were much more likely than private school teachers to believe that a lack of parental involvement was a serious problem in their school (28 versus 4 percent).\20\

The nature of the contact between schools and parents tends to differ in public and private schools. For example, high school seniors in private schools were more likely than their public school peers to have their parents contacted about volunteering

Percentage of seniors whose parents reported that school personnel had
contacted them at least once during the current school year: 1992

----------------------------------------------------------------

Reason for contact             Public   Catholic   Other private

----------------------------------------------------------------

Discussion of student’s:

 Academic performance           52.5      48.5         60.8

 Academic program               42.9      46.1         59.0

 Post-high school plans         34.9      50.0         69.1

 Attendance                     38.7      17.5         25.7

 Behavior                       20.5      14.6         18.5

Request parent to volunteer

 time at school                 51.9      82.9         86.2

Inform parent how to help

 student with school work       21.5      29.3         31.8

----------------------------------------------------------------

SOURCE: NCES, National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988,

Second Follow-up, Parent Survey, 1992.

their time at school or about the student’s post-high school plans, while seniors in public schools were more likely to have their parents contacted about their school attendance.

Private school teachers share a greater sense of community within their schools.

When teachers in a school share a strong sense of community, they are likely to be more effective instructors and more satisfied

Percentages of teachers who strongly agreed with items related to their sense of community
at work: 1993–94

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                                        Public               Private

                                  -------------------   -------------------

                                    Less      750 or      Less      750 or

                                  than 150     more     than 150     more

Sense of community                students   students   students   students

---------------------------------------------------------------------------

Goals, beliefs, and expectations

 Colleagues share beliefs

  and values about central

  mission of school                 40.8       26.2       71.4       49.4



 Goals and priorities for

  school are clear                  36.0       33.1       61.7       56.3



Governance procedures

 Staff members recognized

  for good work                     23.5       22.1       48.1       34.7



 Teachers participate in

  most of the important

  educational decisions             23.7       10.1       38.0       22.6



Collegiality and cooperation

 Great deal of cooperative

  effort among staff                41.5       25.9       65.3       46.4



Administration’s behavior

 is supportive and

 encouraging                        42.0       38.5       65.1       57.0

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SOURCE: NCES, Teachers' Sense of Community: How Do Public and Private

Schools Compare?, IB-10-96, 1996.

with their working conditions.\21\ In the 1993–94 school year, private school teachers in both large and small schools were more likely than public school teachers to report that they and their colleagues shared goals, beliefs, and expectations (and that the goals and priorities for the school were clear); that they were recognized for good work; that teachers participated in most of the important decisions in their schools; that the staff cooperated; and that the administration was supportive and encouraging.

A major thrust of school reform efforts begun in the 1980s has been setting higher academic standards for elementary and secondary school students. One of the National Education Goals for the year 2000 is to have all students be able to demonstrate in grades 4, 8, and 12 "competency over challenging subject matter" in a range of subjects, including reading, mathematics, science, and social studies.

Key aspects of the instructional program at the elementary level are the amount of time spent on core subjects, the teaching methods used in the classroom, and how homework is handled. Public and private schools exhibit both similarities and differences in these areas.

Elementary public school teachers spend more time than private school teachers on core subjects.

In the 1993–94 school year, public elementary teachers in self-contained classrooms spent more time than their private school

Average hours per week elementary school
teachers spent teaching core subjects: 1993–94

--------------------------------------

Subject              Public    Private

--------------------------------------

Total                21.5       18.1

English               10.3        8.5

Mathematics            5.2        4.5

Social studies         3.1        2.7

Science                3.0        2.4

--------------------------------------

SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing in

the United States: A Statistical 

Profile,1993–94, 76–77.

counterparts teaching each of the four core subjects—English, mathematics, social studies, and science—and more time on all four together. Public elementary teachers spent an average of about 22 hours per week teaching the four core subjects, and private school teachers spent about 3 hours less. Teachers in both sectors divided their time among these subjects in approximately the same way. That is, they spent about half of the time teaching English, the next most time on mathematics, then social studies, and science.

Elementary school students in public and private schools spent virtually identical amounts of time in school (6.4 hours per day and 179 hours per year), which implies that private school elementary teachers allocate more time than public school teachers to non-core subjects such as music, art, physical education, and, sometimes, religion.\22\

Elementary teachers in public and private schools use similar teaching methods.

When asked if they used certain instructional strategies at least once a week during the 1993–94 school year, 90 percent or more of the elementary teachers in both sectors said that they provided instruction to the class as a whole, demonstrated concepts using the board or an overhead projector, worked with individual students, and worked with small groups of students.\23\  Among less commonly used practices, public school teachers were more likely than private school teachers to demonstrate a concept using a computer, videotape, or other electronic medium (75 versus 57 percent), while private school teachers were more likely than public school teachers to lecture (78 versus 69 percent).

Private elementary teachers handle homework differently than public elementary teachers.

Almost all elementary school teachers (94 percent of public school teachers and 98 percent of private school teachers) reported that their students did some homework during an average week in 1993–94.\24\  Forty-six percent of public school teachers and 40 percent of private school teachers assigned 1 hour or less per week. Although the focus is often on how much homework is assigned, how teachers use homework assignments may be more important than quantity. For example, some argue that homework is most useful to students if teachers collect, correct, and return their assignments. At the elementary level, private school teachers were more likely than their public school counterparts to do this (82 versus 72 percent).

In 1983, the National Commission on Education and the Economy (NCEE) proposed in A Nation at Risk that all high school graduates be required to complete at least 4 years of English; 3 years each of social studies, science, and mathematics; and .5 years of computer science. This has become a standard against which high school programs are evaluated.

Private high schools appear to have more rigorous academic programs.

Except in social studies, greater percentages of private than public high school students attended schools with graduation requirements at or above the NCEE recommendations in 1990–91. In addition, private school students were much more likely than their public school peers to be required to take 2 years of a foreign language.

In both sectors, a greater percentage of high school graduates earned the minimum number of units specified in the "New

Basics" curriculum (4 years of English, and 3 years each of social studies, science, and mathematics) in 1994 than in 1982. Although the percentage meeting this standard is still higher for private school graduates, the two sectors are now similar when a less restrictive curriculum (one less year each of science and mathematics) is used as the standard.

Graduates of private high schools are much more likely to have taken advanced mathemat-ics and science courses.

In both 1982 and 1994, virtually all graduates of either public or private high schools earned some credits in mathematics and science. However, in both years, graduates of private high schools were more likely than their public school counterparts to take advanced mathematics courses such as algebra II, trigonometry, analysis/pre-calculus, and calculus; courses in biology, chemistry, and physics; and courses in all three of the major sciences (biology, chemistry, and physics). The percentages of students taking these courses increased between 1982 and 1994 for public high school graduates in all of these subjects and for private high school graduates in most of them.

Percentage of high school graduates taking selected mathematics and science
courses in high school: 1982 and 1994

-------------------------------------------------------------------

                                   1982                 1994

                             -----------------    -----------------

Courses (credits)            Public    Private    Public    Private

-------------------------------------------------------------------

Any Mathematics               98.4       99.8      99.5       99.9

Algebra II (0.5)              29.7       52.8      56.4       81.8

Trigonometry (0.5)            11.0       21.4      16.2       29.5

Analysis/pre-calculus (0.5)    5.0       12.8      16.2       29.6

Calculus (1.0)                 3.7       12.0       8.8       14.4

Any Science                   96.2       99.0      99.5      100.0

Biology (1.0)                 74.5       91.9      93.5       97.4

Chemistry (1.0)               28.7       49.2      54.4       74.8

Physics (1.0)                 13.3       22.0      23.7       32.1

Biology, chemistry,

physics (3.0)                  9.7       17.5      20.5       30.1

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SOURCE: NCES, The 1994 High School Transcript Study Tabulations:

ComparativeData on Credits Earned and Demographics for 1994, 1990, 

1987, and 1982 High SchoolGraduates, 1996.

In addition to their curricular offerings, schools provide various other services to support the academic and health-related needs of their students. The particular services a school provides reflect the needs of the students and the availability of resources as well as the importance that the school places on such services. Federal and state laws require public schools to provide some services that are not required of private schools.

Public schools provide a wide array of academic support and health-related services.

Most support services are found more often in public than private schools. This may occur because private schools do not believe

Percentage of schools in which various services were available
to students: 1993–94

----------------------------------------------------

Service                            Public    Private

----------------------------------------------------

Academic support

 Remedial                           83.2       54.5

 Gifted and talented                70.7       24.9

 Bilingual                          17.8        4.2

 ESL                                42.7       11.3

 Chapter I                          61.6       22.7

 Disability                         89.2       24.8

 Diagnostic services                82.6       43.5

 Library                            95.6       80.3



Health-related

 Medical services                   58.7       31.0

 Drug and alcohol prevention        93.6       70.6

 Substance abuse counseling         36.2       14.4

 Free or reduced-price lunches      94.3       22.4

----------------------------------------------------

SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing in the United

States: A Statistical Profile, 1993–94, 26–29.

their students need these services or because they do not believe they can afford to provide them. In addition, private schools may meet the special needs of students without formal programs.

Increasing numbers of schools in both sectors are providing extended-day programs, but public schools still lag behind private schools in this area.

Because of the importance of high-quality child care to working parents, extended-day programs have become increasingly common in elementary and combined schools. However, considerably more private than public elementary and combined schools provided this service in the 1993–94 school year (48 versus 30 percent).

Private schools tend to have larger library collections (on a per pupil basis), but public school library/media centers tend to be more technologically advanced.

Library/media center resources provide students with access to materials and equipment that facilitate and promote learning. Public schools were more likely than private schools to have libraries in 1993–94, but among schools with libraries, private schools had larger collections, on average, on a per student basis (37 versus 26 volumes).\25\  Expenditures (excluding federal gifts and grants) were similar in both sectors in 1993–94, however (about $8 per student annually among schools with libraries).

The library/media centers in public schools were more technologically advanced than those in private schools in 1993–94. For example, they were more likely to have an automated catalog and circulation system; computers with modems and connection to the Internet; and broadcast, cable, and closed circuit television facilities.

Percentage of library media centers with various types of
equipment: 1993–94

--------------------------------------------------

Equipment                        Public    Private

--------------------------------------------------

Automated circulation system      37.9       9.5

Automated catalog                 24.0       9.7

Computer with modem               34.3      19.5

Connection to Internet            12.0       5.3

Cable television                  76.2      39.9

Broadcast television              48.6      39.9

Closed circuit television         25.5       8.8

--------------------------------------------------

SOURCE: NCES, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1993–94

(Library Media Center Questionnaire).

Although there is much variation within each sector, in the aggregate, public school students present their schools with greater challenges than do their private school counterparts. Not only do they come from more diverse racial/ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, but also public school teachers are more likely than private school teachers to perceive their students and their families as having problems that can interfere with learning.

Overall, teachers in public schools are more likely than their private school counterparts to have certain attributes that are thought to contribute to effective teaching. These include more schooling, more teaching experience, and greater participation in professional development activities. However, public and private school teachers use similar teaching strategies. On average, public school teachers earn more and receive more benefits, which provides public schools with one advantage when trying to attract and retain the best teachers.

Despite poorer pay, private school teachers as a group are more satisfied than public school teachers with their jobs. In the aggregate, private schools seem to offer a greater sense of community, greater teacher autonomy in the classroom, and more local influence over curriculum and important school policies. In addition, on average, private schools have a climate that would appear to be more conducive to learning, including greater safety and fewer problems caused by students having poor attitudes toward learning or negative interactions with teachers.

Finally, private school students take more advanced courses than do public high school students. They also appear to follow a more rigorous academic program overall, but the differences may be narrowing.

While some systematic differences between public and private education have been outlined here, enormous variation exists within each sector. How successful students are in school does not depend on whether they attend public or private schools, but is related in complex ways to the abilities, attitudes, and problems they bring to school; the skills and expertise of their teachers; and the quality of the learning environment, which is the joint responsibility of students, teachers, school administrators, parents, the larger communities in which the schools are located, and policymaking at the local, state, and federal levels.

1/  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 1997 (NCES 97-388), Washington, D.C.: 1997, 150, based on NCES, Digest of Education Statistics 1996 (based on Common Core of Data).

2/  A.S. Bryk, V.E. Lee, and P.B. Holland, Catholic Schools and the Common Good, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.

3/  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, How Different, How Similar? Comparing Key Organizational Qualities of American Public and Private Secondary Schools, by D. Baker, M. Han, and C.T. Keil (NCES 96-322), Washington, D.C.: 1996, 35.

4/  See, for example, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing in the United States: A Statistical Profile, 1993–94, by R.R. Henke, S.P. Choy, and S. Geis (NCES 96-124), Washington, D.C.: 1996; Baker, Han, and Keil, How Different, How Similar?; and U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Schools and Staffing in the United States: Selected Data for Public and Private Schools, 1993–94, by S.A. Bobbitt, S.P. Broughman, and K.J. Gruber (NCES 95-191), Washington, D.C.: 1995.

5/  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics 1996 (NCES 96-133), Washington, D.C.: 1996, 51.

6/  NCES, Schools and Staffing in the United States, 1993–94, 24–25.

7/  P.A. Graham, "Black Teachers: A Drastically Scarce Resource," Phi Delta Kappan 68 (8) (1987): 598–605; and S.H. King, "The Unlimited Presence of African-American Teachers," Review of Educational Research 63 (2) (1993): 115–149.

8/  NCES, Schools and Staffing in the United States, 1993–94, 52–53.

9/  Ibid., 54–55.

10/  Ibid., 56–57.

11/  Ibid., 90–91, 93.

12/  Ibid., 94–95.

13/  The Condition of Education 1997, 182, based on NCES, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1993–94, and the Teacher Follow-up Survey, 1994–95.

14/  NCES, Schools and Staffing in the United States, 1993–94, 107.

15/  V.E. Lee and J.B. Smith, "High School Size: Which Works Best, and for Whom?," paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York, 1996.

16/  F. Mosteller, R. Light, and J. Sachs, "Sustained Inquiry in Education: Lessons from Skill Grouping and Class Size," Harvard Educational Review 66 (4) (1996): 797–842.

17/  The Condition of Education 1997, 136, based on NCES, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1987–88, 1990–91, and 1993–94.

18/  J.E. Chubb and T.M. Moe, Politics, Markets, and America’s Schools, Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1990.

19/  U.S. Department of Education, National Education Goals Panel, The National Education Goals Report: Building A Nation of Learners 1996, Washington, D.C.: 1996.

20/  NCES, Schools and Staffing in the United States, 1993–94, 112–113.

21/  S.J. Rosenholtz, Teachers’ Workplace: The Organizational Context of Schooling, New York: Teachers College, 1991.

22/  U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, The Condition of Education 1993 (NCES 93-290), Washington, D.C.: 1993, 128, based on NCES, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1990–91.

23/  The Condition of Education 1997, 132, based on NCES, Teacher Follow-up Survey, 1994–95.

24/  Ibid., 130, based on NCES, Teacher Follow-up Survey, 1994–95.

25/  Ibid., 58, based on NCES, Schools and Staffing Survey, 1993–94 (Library Media Center Questionnaire).

For more information, see the following NCES publications:

The Condition of Education 1997. Washington, D.C.: 1997 (NCES 97-388)

The Condition of Education 1996. Washington, D.C.: 1996 (NCES 96-304)

The Condition of Education 1995. Washington, D.C.: 1995 (NCES 95-273)

Digest of Education Statistics 1996. Washington, D.C.: 1996 (NCES 96-133)

Digest of Education Statistics 1995. Washington, D.C.: 1995 (NCES 95-029)

Other Findings from the Condition of Education:

No. 1:  High School Students Ten Years After A Nation At Risk (NCES 95-764)

No. 2:  The Educational Progress of Black Students (NCES 95-765)

No. 3:  America’s Teachers Ten Years After A Nation At Risk (NCES 95-766)

No. 4:  The Educational Progress of Hispanic Students (NCES 95-767)

No. 5:  The Educational Progress of Women (NCES 96-768)

No. 6:  The Cost of Higher Education (NCES 96-769)

No. 7:  Teachers’ Working Conditions (NCES 97-371)

No. 8:  Preparation for Work (NCES 97-373)

No. 9:  Minorities in Higher Education (NCES 97-372)

No. 10:  The Social Context of Education (NCES 97-981)

No. 11:  Women in Mathematics and Science (NCES 97-982)

Until supplies are exhausted, a single copy of The Condition of Education 1997 (NCES 97-388), as well as other NCES publications, may be obtained at no cost from either the National Library of Education (NLE), phone (800) 424-1616 or e-mail: LIBRARY-NLE@ed.gov, or the National Education Data Resource Center (NEDRC), phone (703) 845-3151 or e-mail: ndrc@inet.ed.gov. If you need more than one copy of a publication or supplies have been exhausted, copies may be purchased from the Government Printing Office (GPO). To order a copy from GPO see the order form at the end of this document.

NCES constituents with access to the Internet can tap a rich collection of education-related information at the U.S. Department of Education’s (ED) public Gopher/FTP/World Wide Web site, including:

	announcements of new publications and data sets
	descriptions of NCES and ED programs
	statistical tables, charts, and data sets
	press releases
	general information about the Department
	searchable ED staff directory
	funding opportunities
	event calendars
	directories of effective programs
	directory of education-related information centers
	research findings and synthesis
	full-text publications for teachers, parents, and researchers
	pointers to public Internet resources at R&D Centers, Regional Laboratories, ERIC Clearinghouses, and other ED-funded insti-tutions.

They can access the information by using:

A Gopher client, gopher.ed.gov; or select North America-->U.S. Department of Education. From the main gopher menu, NCES pro-duced information is available under Educational Research, Improvement and Statistics (OERI & NCES)/National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)/.

An FTP client, ftp to ftp.ed.gov; log on as "anonymous."

A World Wide Web client such as NCSA Mosaic or Lynx;

Dial-in users can access much of the same information through the OERI Toll-Free Electronic Bulletin Board, which provides on-line access to statistical data, research findings, information about Department of Education programs, and, in some cases, full texts of departmental documents. Computer users can retrieve this informa-tion at any hour using a modem (at speeds up to 14,400 baud) and calling (800) 222-4922. Local direct, call (202) 219-1511.

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